Ethical Issues In The Human Genome Project

Ethical Issues In The Human Genome Project The Human Genome Project was the largest international scientific research conducted in the field of Biology. This research project began in 1990 with a mission of discovering all the genes in human DNA and determining the sequences of chemical base pairs which make up the DNA of human. The Human Genome Project was coordinated by the Department of Energy and National Institute of Health, in the USA. The research involved thousands of scientists, biologists, chemists, engineers, computer scientists, mathematicians and human participants from around the world. The researchers plotted several types of biological maps that enabled many other researchers to improve their knowledge and to use them in proceeding with their researches. According to web definitions, a genome is The set of genes that are carried by an individual. A chromosome is a genetic structure that contains cells that contain thousands of genes. The human genome is stored in 23 chromosome pairs. Gene sequencing is a process that determines the sequence of DNA of an organisms genome. The genome that was sequenced for the first time was a virus and was done in 1977. Scientists have discovered that there are over 3 billion DNA base pairs in a haploid human genome. One of the aims of the human genome project was to plot maps that are capable of providing a way for the researchers to locate specific genes in a chromosome. The primary aim of the Human Genome Project was to identify and map all the DNA pairs. There are many applications of Genome research, namely, Bio Technology, Bio Medical Research, Molecular Medicine, DNA Forensics, Agriculture, Livestock Breeding and bio-processing. The outcome of the Human Genome Project enables improved diagnosis of disease, Rational Drug design, creation of customized drugs and Gene therapy. These are several benefits of the HGP in the context of Molecular Medicine and Bio Medical Research. The maps created by the HGP have enabled researchers to unveil many genetic conditions such as inherited colon cancer, Breast cancer and Alzheimers disease. The HGP ( in the filed of DNA forensic) will enable to identify suspects by identifying DNA found in crime scenes, identify parents, and other relationships, and to identify DNA precisely in any context. Furthermore, it enables creation of nutritious products and Biopesticides as benefits to the field of Agriculture and Bi oprocessing. Plants and animals that are more immune to diseases could be created by understanding plant and animal genomes. Moreover, it will enable to reduce cost of agriculture and to provide customers with more nutritious and quality products. The benefits for Bioarchaelogy, Human Evolution and Anthropology are the ability to study the evolution of humans by understanding the genomics, ability to study migration of different populations and to discover the relationships between the archaebacteria, eukaryotes and prokaryotes. On the contrary to the above mentioned benefits, the Human Genome project and its applications have encountered significant social, ethical and legal issues. The main issue is allowing access to gathered genetic information. If the information is accessible by anyone, it could be misused. For example an employer can access this information, and use it in making decisions when they hire people. There may be people who are having genetic disorders, yet physically fit and capable of working. Nevertheless, the employers can decide not to hire them considering the possibility of developing a medical disorder. Decisions are made based on the employees personal genetic information. This could be unfair to a certain group of people with genetic disorders. Making decision based on the genetic information of the employees is unlawful under section 202 of the Genetic Information Non Discrimination Act of 2008. According to Section 202, Employer Practices, it is unlawful for an employer not to h ire or to discharge or to discriminate any employee based on their genetic information. If the data is accessed by Insurance companies, they could use it to earn profits. The person who is willing to insure himself will have to pay a premium depending on the severity of the disease he has. For example, a cancer patients premium will be higher that the premium of a normal person. The ethical issue is discrimination based on the genetic information. It is a known fact that discrimination is used to discourage people in many places such as schools, workplaces, universities, and even in public. There are many instances in which people had to leave workplaces, and children faced many problems in schools due to embarrassment which was a consequence of discrimination. Race and ethnicity discrimination was the most prominent form of discrimination. It has deviated into genetic discrimination since the genetic information is now available. This may cause embarrassment to people with certain genetic disorders, discourage them and even lose their confidence which could let them do wn. To regulate this situation, many governments have set laws and legislations that describe the penalties of discrimination. One such legislation is the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974. Section 702 of the act States (A) In General For purposes of this section, a group health plan, and a health insurance issuer offering group health insurance coverage in connection with a group health plan, may not adjust premium of contribution amounts for the group covered under such plan on the basis of genetic discrimination. It further discusses the penalties for the insurers and employers who use discrimination as a form of gaining profit. Another way of misusing the gathered information is using it do discriminate minority ethnic groups or communities. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Human genome states, No one shall be subjected to discrimination based on genetic characteristics that is intended to infringe or has the effect of infringing human rights, fundamental freedom and human dignity. Therefore even though a persons genetic information is revealed, he has the right to live without being a victim of discrimination. Nevertheless, the existence of the genetic information may lead to several social issues such as racial discrimination. Currently, most people in European countries are victims of racial criticism. The human genome project requires quite a large number of genes to be gathered and stored and then to be tested. The genetic differences between groups of people can be emphasized. This may have a psychological impact due to the differences between genetics. One of the greatest achievements of the Human Genome Project was the genetic map which is capable of facilitating researchers to pin point specific genes in a chromosome. This enables to discover a significant amount of disorders in the human body and doctors to quickly identify the disorders within their patients. Several decades ago, people were not allowed to be aware of the diseases and only the scientists were allowed to discover them and find treatments. The society has revolutionized, and people live more sophisticated lives, therefore, awareness of such diseases is at a higher level. Many people argue that patients have a right to be aware of their illnesses; on the other hand, this has a negative impact on the patients mentality. Even if a genetic disorder is discovered, it takes some time to discover the treatments. For instance, cancer was discovered, several decades ago, however proper treatments with no side effects have not been found yet. Similarly, when a genetic diso rder is diagnosed, it can create frustration and anxiety. This frustration and anxiety will remain within the patients mind until the treatments are discovered and the patient is treated. This may take a short time period or may take a couple of years. It is a well known fact that a person can live longer and happier as long as he is not aware of his illnesses. Another drawback is that people might be discouraged and refuse to live their normal lives due to frustration. Awareness of the genetic disorders can ultimately result in a group of people who are mentally ill which would become a severe social issue. Applying new genetics to unborn children is another area which may cause ethical and social implications. The discoveries of the Human Genome Project have enabled the scientists and doctors to replace cells in unborn children. This implies that parents can have custom-made babies, with the desired features. A possible dilemma is issues related to In-Vitro-Fertilization. In Vitro Fertilization is the process of fertilizing egg cells by male cells (spermatocyte) outside the womb. Since genetic information is available, genes with all good features could be selected and high grade embryos could be created. The concept of Designer Baby is introduced with this technology. Theses embryos could be sold at different prices which may cause in every human having a price and it will depend on the race, intelligence level, eye, or hair color and immunity to diseases. Prices of these designer babies will depend on the quality of the baby. Social issues may arise among people who are able to affor d for a high quality designer baby and people who are not capable of owning one. Another possible social issue is the competition among the designer babies when they grow older. Every parent would want their baby to be a high quality designer baby. The rate of child kidnaps and murders could rise as a result of the designer baby concept. As stated in the previous paragraphs, one of the main objectives of the Human Genome project was to map the DNA sequence. This enables the doctors to modify the embryos and create humans who can live longer, more intelligent and more immune to various diseases. In addition to the issues raised by having designer babies, creation of super human with fewer defects have raised religious issues. It contradicts with the religious beliefs on God of many people. Creation of super human has raised controversial issues among the scientists who are involved in research based on creating humans and spiritual and religious leaders. This is because many religions believe that the creator of humans is God. They believe that the superiority of human is decided by god. The argument brought by them is that only god has the power to create a living creature and humans are not creators, but only creations. They also believe that humans shall never become powerful than God. Moreover, they strongly belie ve that these scientific researches and developments have disappointed God, and the harsh punishments should be given to scientists who are engaged in such research. This religious issue could grow into a serious social issue where people might start attacking the scientists. Previous researches have shown that most people are against modifying embryos to create better quality humans. Furthermore, it is evident that people who are against the creation of super human are mostly religious and spiritual leaders and people who strongly believe in God. Forensic Investigation is another area which is benefitted by the Human Genome Project. Nevertheless, it can be the origin of many social and ethical issues. The DNA gathered by the HGP is stored in a database known as the National DNA databank: CODIS. The goal of storing this information is to use it for forensic investigation, in criminology. Investigations involving DNA is considered to be more accurate. The Combined DNA Index System has become a powerful tool to reduce violent crime as it combines DNA technologies with computers. Two indexes are used in CODIS, namely, The Convicted Offender Index and The Forensic Index. These indexes are generated using the biological evidences gathered from the crime scene. DNA profiles are then created using Short Tandem Repeat analysis. Different software is utilized in CODIS to search for the indexes for matching DNA profiles. According to the sources, the databank contains more than five million DNA profiles. DNA is tested to identify crimin als, but when the tests are done, used DNA records should be destroyed. Proper Disposal of the DNA information is vital or else the persons entire genetic information would be available. This again could be used to discriminate people or to accuse innocent people for crimes which they have not committed. Another distressing issue is the violation of privacy of the owners of the genetic information. Genetic information is considered as private and confidential information of a person and privacy implies that a person has the right to decide the extent of disclosing his or her genetic information. Privacy is violated due to not having proper means of disposing the used samples. Accusing innocent people or arresting them is another negative aspect of storing DNA in a databank. This technology matches DNA profiles of crimes with victims and therefore, it can match a person who has been in the crime scene earlier. This way, innocent people could be accused and arrested, hence discriminat ed and cornered by the society. Another alarming issue is populating criminal databases with DNA samples of people belonging to ethnic minorities. This is mainly done with an intention of discrimination and discouraging people. This is due to not gathering and storing genetic information in an unbiased manner such that it would not be unfair for a group of people. For example, a controversial problem occurred in a European country, for storing DNA samples in a biased manner such that the criminal databases were mostly populated with innocent people belonging to ethnic minorities. Consequently, innocent people were arrested and questioned. Gene Testing is yet another area which may cause social issues. In gene testing, DNA sample are taken and stored in databases, and sometimes used to compare with other peoples DNA samples. Once a DNA test is done, the company issues a copy to the owner of the DNA and results are kept in hard copy files as well as databases. These hard copy files could be accessed by any one and refer to the genetic information and test results of some one. The database can also be hacked and the genetic information can be revealed. It is a known fact that no database is hundred percent secure even if it is an offline database. Therefore security is a main issue in genetic testing. Some of this DNA samples are compared with other samples during tests, and mostly done without the consent of the owner of the DNA sample. Privacy is the main issue of having a massive databank with DNA information of millions of people. DNA can provide information about people including their probability of having certain diseases, sexual orientation or certain behaviors. Gaining access to this information would violate the privacy of another. Police, forensic science service and researchers can access this information without the consent of the people. This violates the privacy of the people. One can use this information unethically, against another to discriminate or to harm someone emotionally. Celebrities would be the first to lose their privacy as many people are keen on gathering information about them. This information could be published and could be the origin of many other issues in their personal lives. The probability for genetic discrimination by the government, schools, employers and insurance companies may increase. Invading someone elses privacy is illegal according to many privacy laws and legislations set by many governments. According to the Privacy Law of the United States of America, privacy is the expectation that confidential personal information disclosed in a private place wil l not be disclosed to third parties, when that disclosure would cause embarrassments or emotional distress to a person of reasonable sensitivities. Furthermore, it discusses the penalties of invading other peoples privacy. Article four of universal Declaration of the Human Genome and Human Rights states that The human genome in its natural state shall not give rise to financial gains. In most countries it is believed that DNA, when removed from a person, is not considered to be in its natural form, hence it is used to gain financial benefits. For instance, in the US, innovations are encouraged by allowing gene patenting. Though using genomes to gain profits is against the Universal declaration of Human Rights many companies tend to use this to gain profits. But many people are against gene patenting for various reasons including their strong beliefs which says that human gene sequences should never be patented. It is also believed that human genome is an inherent part of every person. Gene patenting is prohibited in some parts of the world and there has been evidence of situations in which legal bodies have denied to grant patents. Another area of the Human Genome Project which will cause several ethical, legal and social issues is genetic Testing, Screening and Counseling. As a result of identifying new genes, tests that can determine the level of risk for a particular genetic disease are developed. This will enable people to know whether there is a potential of developing a disease or a genetic disorder which could be passed on to their children. This will have a negative impact on the society. Also it could change the whole life of a person. For example, a person could be mentally letdown if he gets to know that he has a high possibility of developing a rare disease which could not be cured. If this information is revealed, and accessed by an employer this person might not be granted a job. Similarly, if the person wants to get an insurance coverage for himself, he might be required to pay a higher premium to the insurers depending on his disease. Genetic engineering involves manipulation of genes. The map created as a result of the Human Genome Project provides information that will enable to diagnose and treat many diseases. The map can also help in determining the genetic foundation of physical and psychological behavior. As a result, it is possible to alter the behaviors with the involvement of genetics. Two areas of genetic engineering is somatic cell manipulation which alters body cells and germline manipulation which alters reproductive cells. The use of Somatic cell manipulation is ethically accepted as it limits the changes that can be done to an individual. Since it alters only the body cells, the risks are not inherited by the descendants. In contrast, the germline cell manipulation raises ethical issues since the manipulations of reproductive cells can extend the risks across the generations. Genetic engineering done on humans may cause health issues. For example, genes of one person could be enhanced to increase a persons height further than his natural height. But this may cause stress to other parts of the body such as the heart. As a result, the person might be left physically ill. Another key ethical issue of the Human Genome Project is the use of genetic screening. According to web definitions genetic screening is The process of testing individuals in a population for certain hereditary defects. Mandatory genetic screening for adults raises many ethical issues related to privacy and personal liberty. Furthermore, Genetic screening of infants, young infants and other vulnerable groups who cannot grant their consent is unethical. For example, in most cases, infants are screened without the consent of parents. Screening is done based on an assumption that parents are willing to know about the probable diseases that might develop in their children. There is evidence of situations where genetic screening has been used as a form of discrimination. For example, in insuring patients who are willing to obtain a health insurance, there are required to pay extra amounts. In addition to the applications discussed earlier, Agriculture and livestock breeding are two other applications of the genome research. As opposed to the above applications, these areas do not use humans for testing. Yet it may give rise to many health issues which might convert into social issues with time. These applications entails of developing bio engineered food and animals, also known as genetic engineering. This process is similar to genetic engineering done on humans. Though many researchers explain the positive aspect of bio engineered food, many health issues and other side effects night arise by consuming modified food. Many companies tend to create genetically modified food regardless of the consumers health. Regular consumption of genetically modified food may severely damage the health of people; as a consequence, people of a country may not be able to involve in the development process of the country. Furthermore, companies would refuse to hire people and as a result , the country can be populated with unhealthy and unemployed people. Though the mission of The Human Genome Project was accomplished, it is evident that the potential and current applications of the Human Genome Research have caused many issues. Ethical and social issues included issues concerning the privacy of the people, discrimination, unauthorized access to the gathered information and security issues and many other related issues. Issues related to the informed consent and legal issues were also caused by the applications of the genome research. The concepts of super human and designer baby were two controversial concepts that caused religious and social issues. Furthermore, other applications in the field of agriculture and genetic engineered food could cause health issues in the society. In my opinion, the Human Genome project and its current and potential applications have a significant amount of social, ethical, religious and legal issues which would directly affect many peoples lives.

Conversation Analysis of Doctor and Patient

Conversation Analysis of Doctor and Patient Conversation Analysis Overview To conduct the conversation analysis, the research had to analyze the short recording to the discussion in detail and analyze it from different perspectives like therapeutic, legal, business, health, family, or social context. There are different things in the conversation of people which researcher has analyzed like pause between the conversation and sentences, short and long pause, increase and decrease in the pitch of people, interruptions in conversation and the precise words and phrases used by the people in the conversation. The basic purpose was to identify that how individuals fulfill their goals and how the sense of order is maintained (Maynard, 1997). The conversation which is being analyzed in this researcher paper is institutional talk between doctor and patient. Methodology Transcription A transcription of the conversation is written below. At first the researcher recorded a conversation either in audio or video. Secondly the researcher used the nomenclature, described by Jefferson, to recode the conversation(Woodruff, Szymanski, Grinter Aoki, 2009). The purpose of nomenclature was to explain the words that are expressed in the conversation and many other verbal features such as the intonation, timing, and other vocal characteristics. During the conversation analysis, the researcher had to listen to conversation repeatedly to identify certain vocal features. Sometimes the help of another researcher was taken to identify whether the transcription used is accurate or not. Dr: Comen sit down, (.) Missiz Sampson,= Pt: =Yes Dr: Ah (0.3) Dr:  ¨t ¨hhhh |^I |vdont think weve |^met before |^hv we (1.0) Pt: Well Ive had this: u-sore throat onn off, for weeks no:w.= Dr: =|^Oo dear. Pt: En Ive got a cough- writs- its- Ive been you know choking you known Im[coughin]g- Im getting no relief from= Dr: [Mm|^hm,] Pt: coughing its just taw- choking that (.) [( ) back]of= Dr: [ ¨h h h h h h ] Pt: =my[( ) Dr: [Do you bring any |vphlegm up when you |vcough (0.7) Pt: Well- (0.2) e-yesterday I managed to be sickn I di:d you know,? but normally: i[t- Dr: [But you: vomited then, Pt: Ye:s u[h huh Dr: [Mm. The conversation nomenclature has been explained in the table below. For example, the (.) explains the a complete but short pause in the conversation. The number written in the brackets would explain the duration of pause in the conversation. Wherever was possible the Para-verbal features to explain and interpret the speech. Moreover, the motive and emotions expressed in conversation are not included in this explanation of conservation. (.) Just noticeable pause (0.3) pause of 0.3 seconds, for example ?word Detectable, obvious rise in pitch ?word Detectable, obvious fall in pitch. words [words ] [words ] Square brackets across adjacent lines implies to individuals are speaking simultaneously .hh Inhalation hh Exhalation wo(h)rd Implies laughter while speaking the corresponding word hehehe Laughter that is separate from the speech wor- A sharp termination of the word while speaking wo:rd Implies the sound that precedes the colon has been elongated (words) Words in brackets are conjectures when the sound or pronunciation is unclear ( ) Unclear talk. Each set of brackets represents one syllable of unclear speech word= =word Implies no pause between two consecutive speakers word Louder than usual speech WORD Appreciably louder than usual speech ?word? Quieter than usual speech >word word Slower than usual speech ((description)) Double brackets represent descriptions of some verbal behavior that is difficult to write phonetically, such as ((sobbing)) or ((clears throat)) In the explanation of conversation and transcription formation sometimes the precise pronunciation is also presented for example in the transcription â€Å"dunno† is preferred over don’t know† if found applicable. To capture the speech styles, the researcher has diverged from the conventional spelling of the words. But when the divergence is in the excess then reader would have struggled to follow the exchange of communication. However, while transcribing the conversation styles and other things like physical movements, manners of the people, their gestures and the cheek scratching to hold the gaze are not included in it. These physical movements cannot be transcribed the vocal and para-vocal features. Moreover, the nuances of these physical movements cannot be presented well. Interpretation At the third stage researcher had interpreted the conversation by the transcription made and by replaying the recording. As the first step of interpretation the intuitive interpretation of the action of every person are explained. Secondly the each response has been considered in more detail to uncover the mechanism and devices which has been used in the conversation to maintain the understanding of conversation and fulfill the goals behind conversation. the first step of this conversation analysis is to analyze the aim of doctor. Clinic of the doctor is the institution which is involved in this conversation analysis. Thus, this particular conversation is example of institutional conversation as describe by Silverman (1997). The basic purpose of the person from the institution(doctor) is to analyze the situation in which patient finds himself at the same time avoiding saying any such word which could make his situation worse. Another immediate observation which comes from this conversation is that patient is the only and important person who holds the information and is very critical for doctor. This is proximal context of conversation. Researcher can establish this point that it creates a powerful relationship between doctor and patient because of limited to immediate context of interaction between them. This type of conversation is represented by the particular way of conversation management devices are used by both protagonists. By using different conversation methods like sequencing, adjacency pairs along with preferred and dis-preferred responses, patient has made easy for the doctor to analyze the seriousness of his situation. After doctor realizes the seriousness of situation then patients provides packages of information and limited amount of information to doctor when he moves towards the most delicate matter. Observing this conversation one can observe that from line 6 onwards conversation goes from normal sequential structure to more turbulent one once the topic of conversation turns into more delicate one. More precisely, on line one the doctor greets the patient and after her sitting he tries to identify what is the matter by asking her whether he knows the patient and patient has ever visited him before. After a short pause the patient gives him desired response by telling that she keeps visiting him because of her sore throat. This precision is particularly important to note and could also be dismissed as irrelevant in this analysis if the adjacency pair had not been appeared in the further lines in which the patient has said that he has cough and choking too. Indeed, the caller is using her right of turn taking to tell about her condition to doctor. So in this conversation turn taking and adjacency pairs has been observed. Once the doctor has listened about the situation of patient he has not given him immediate response but has tried to avoid it and let the patient kept talking so that she could completely tell him about her condition. Here he just said â€Å"Oo dear†. In this the expansion of the conversation is observed. â€Å"Oo† or â€Å"Oh† are another common example of adjacency pair. For example with the â€Å"Oh† sound or uttering â€Å"really† they intend to expand and elongate the response to a question. â€Å"Oh† is the expansion context is an indication of desire to get more information in the opinion of Heritage (1984). Sometimes â€Å"Oh† is interpreted differently in other contexts. The response starting with â€Å"Oh† to first pair part indicates the reception of information. As explained in this example â€Å"Are you going tonight† and â€Å"Oh, I’m not sure† as the result of previous remark the state of pers on has been changed. The answer with Oh implies. The doctor has tried to repair the conversation because he wants the patient to keep going with her condition that is why repairing of conversation is observed where doctor has just said â€Å"[Mm|^hm,]†. When patient gives short pause in the conversation the doctor asked about the cough and then a bit long pause is observed in the conversation. This is example of adjacency pair in which doctor is trying to reconfirm the previous statement of patient. After the short pause patient gives the answer to doctor and then doctor asked him whether she did vomit or not then there was prompt answer to the question yes here another type of adjacency pair was observed which is called preferred and un-prefrred actions. Sometimes it happens that first pair parts or questions are answered promptly but sometimes answers are delayed because they are not the preferred actions about which question are asked. The questions answered promptly are p referred one with the delayed answers are regarded as the un-preferred. For example, when any invitation is accepted then it is prompt repose and considered are preferred action and declining the invitation is delayed response and un-preferred action. The un-preferred actions have delayed response because it considered that their answer would create problems in social relationships. A long and short pause on line 4, 6,11, 14 and 16 , a repair line 11 an expansion of conversation on line 8 are enough to build an argument that this information has made doctor able to analyze that condition of patient is very serious and he can also analyze the situation in which patient finds herself but still getting the previous information of patient is very difficult because of being delicate object as described by Silverman (1997).In this framework the last comment could be made about the patient statement when she says that she is normally sick. This is attempt of building an acceptable account of delicate matter which represents the feature of adjacency repair. Results and Discussion The philosophy of ethnomethodology was adopted in conversation analysis, proposed by Harold Lerner, an American sociologist, in his book Studies in Ethnomethodology (Lerner, 2004). Social order is considered as illusory according to ethnomethodology. The social world is actually haphazard and random by appears to us in order and is predictable. Individuals in society consider social order as social construction in their minds. Individuals in the society try to uncover the patterns of advice which they receive even though they receive the suggestions randomly. The conversation analysis is not based not the specific utterance of word or sentence in the person, but it involves the whole discussion and conversation among the individuals. No individual can interpret in the same any conversation. In order to maintain the sense of order in conversation, the people assume that they can maintain the meaning of utterance of words of other persons (Sidnell, 2009). People in the conversation take the help of subtle and explicate mannerism, expressions and remarks to maintain the illusion that they can and have understood the meaning of the uttered words by the people in conversation. For this purpose, they can and might mimic the emotional expression of another person. Confusion expression is also evident when they see that there is the violation of their expression. To understand the methods and procedures implied by people to cultivate the sense of procedure ethnomethodological research is implied (PeraÃÅ'ˆkylaÃÅ'ˆ, 2008). Scholars can infringe upon social rules to conduct a breaching experiment to achieve their goal if they think that conversation is going the wrong way of the road. Research Questions Conversation analysis underpins several assumptions Conversation is ordered and systematic no randomness or unstructured conversation aspect was found There is no universal rule to underpin the structure of conversation, but it is the participants of conversation who cultivate the order, structure and context. Even the structure of conversation is cultivated by the participants still conversation patterns are repeated in many contexts and cultures. The basic role of the conversation analysis is to evaluate the skills, devices and methods used to generate order in conversation which guides the communication, goals and helps in understanding the other person. Tough sometimes while conversation people are not aware how to create the order but researcher can generate the order from the real conversations (Liddicoat, 2011). Complications and applications of conversation analysis Some scholars opine that sometimes during the conversation people do not consider the key issues like context and structure of conversation which impinge on discourse. The ideology of social order plays key role in the methods which individuals use to maintain the social order, fulfilling their goals. Conversation analysis must consider the pervasive but unobservable issues opined by the proponents of critical discourse analysis. During the analysis of conversation, the political orientation and theoretical assumptions should be avoided opined by Schegloff (2007). These could create the biases in description and interpretation of conversations. A remark can be interpreted as the mean of dominance but can actually facilitate the conversation. Conversation analysis, however, has bee. Applied to examine the methods and devices individuals apply to maintain and perpetuate inequalities in power. Hutchby (2008), for instance, utilized conversation analysis to show how radio hosts maintain power over their callers. Hutchby showed that radio hosts use various terms or phrases, like So or And, to challenge the pertinence of an argument. Similarly, radio hosts often ascribe and challenge a position to the caller, summarizing a version of their argument they can readily dismiss. In addition, Hutchby demonstrates that radio hosts do not need to offer their own position, which simplifies their role. In this work, conversation analysis provides a unique insight into the attempts of individuals to maintain power, offering an empirical insight into the theoretical mechanisms that proponents of discourse analysis posit. References Forrester, M. (2010).Doing qualitative research in psychology. Los Angeles [i.e. Thousand Oaks, Calif.]: SAGE Publications. Gardner, R. (2012). Conversation Analysis and orientation to learning.Journal Of Applied Linguistics,5(3). doi:10.1558/japl.v5i3.229 Goodwin, C. (1990). Conversation Analysis.Annual Review Of Anthropology,19(1), 283-307. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.19.1.283 Grant, L. (2009). Book review: PAUL TEN HAVE, Doing Conversation Analysis: A Practical Guide. London: SAGE, 2007, 246 pp.Discourse Studies,11(3), 377-379. doi:10.1177/14614456090110030603 Have, P. (2007).Doing Conversation Analysis. London: Sage Publications. Hutchby, I., Wooffitt, R. (2008).Conversation analysis. Cambridge: Polity. Lerner, G. (2004).Conversation analysis. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub. Co. Liddicoat, A. (2011).An introduction to conversation analysis. London: Continuum. Maynard, D. (1997). The News Delivery Sequence: Bad News and Good News in Conversational Interaction.Research On Language Social Interaction,30(2), 93-130. doi:10.1207/s15327973rlsi3002_1 PeraÃÅ'ˆkylaÃÅ'ˆ, A. (2008).Conversation analysis and psychotherapy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Schegloff, E. (2007).Sequence organization in interaction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sidnell, J. (2009).Conversation analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sidnell, J., Stivers, T. (2013).The handbook of conversation analysis. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. Wetherell, M. (1998). Positioning and Interpretative Repertoires: Conversation Analysis and Post-Structuralism in Dialogue.Discourse Society,9(3), 387-412. doi:10.1177/0957926598009003005 Woodruff, A., Szymanski, M., Grinter, R., Aoki, P. (2009). Practical Strategies for Integrating a Conversation Analyst in an Iterative Design Process.Palo Alto Research Center,3(1), 3-9. Retrieved from http://www2.parc.com/csl/projects/guidebooks/publications/dis02.pdf

Orwells Perception of the Political Power of Language Essay -- Politi

Orwell's Perception of the Political Power of Language As an author, George Orwell is concerned with the modern use and misuse of the English language. He notes the recognized ability of language to distort truth and deceive masses in his essay "Politics and the English Language", and attempts to alert the public of this power in his novel Nineteen-Eighty-Four . Depicting dystopia of a totalitarian system at a complete extreme, Orwelll's novel is essentially about psychological control of the public. In the creation of "Newspeak", Orwell portrays the effects of recurring abuse of language by government, and demonstrates how language can be used politically to manipulate minds on a monumental scale, eventually birthing a society in which people obey the government unquestionably. As argued in his essay and actualized in the novel, language acts as an instrument of mind-control, with the goal of perpetual elimination of individual consciousness and maintenance of a totalitarian regime. Orwell's essay begins with the understanding that "†¦the present political chaos is connected with the decay of language". In evaluating trends in current language, such as the use of pretentious diction and meaningless words, he argues that an individual morphs into a type of human machine , simply regurgitating information without involving any of his or her own thoughts. As Orwell says in the essay, "Political language . . . is designed to make lies sound truthful and murder respectable, and to give an appearance of solidity to pure wind" . In Nineteen-Eighty-Four, this phenomenon is depicted in the development of Newspeak. Developed chiefly to restrict the range of one's thought and shorten memory, Newspeak is an ideal language for a totali... ...mps: this is called elimination of unreliable elements" . Thus the use of Newspeak in Oceania similarly serves to uphold political obedience. As the Inner Party has the ability to alter the structure of language in Nineteen-Eighty-Four, it makes the conception of nonconformist and rebellious thought impossible, thus eliminating any questioning of the Party's absolute power. Both Orwell's novel and essay carry a grave warning about the political powers of language. He uses his media to demonstrate not only how language can cloak truth, but also how language can be used as an ultimate tool for maintenance of totalitarian regimes. While language is usually thought to extend cultural considerations and improve one's understanding of the world, Orwell's works illustrate how it can, when used in a vicious political way, become an instrument against human consciousness.

Gun Control: Is It A Problem? :: Second Amendment The Right To Bear Arms

Ten-thousand, five-hundred, twenty-seven people die a year in a handgun related incidents in the United States. This number, by far, out weighs those gun related deaths in countries such as Sweden, Great Britain, and Japan, which number 13, 22, and 87 respectively. What is the reason for such drastic differences in numbers? The latter mentioned countries have stricter gun control laws and they require bare arm safety courses. These laws have a direct relationship to the number of gun deaths which occur each year from country to country. Perhaps if the U.S. would adopt some of those laws the number of deaths would drop accordingly. Winthrop addressed such a dilemma almost 350 years ago in his "Speech to the General Court" in 1645. Winthrop's two main problems were where do the rights of people stop and the magistrates' authority begin. According to Winthrop, people are naturally evil, and if left to their own devices, they will become even worse. Therefore, authority is a necessity. This same principle holds true for gun control. People here in the U.S. have the "right to bare arms," but with that right comes responsibility. As an American with that right you're not free to shoot anyone or anything at will. Government should create laws to protect the rights of others. I believe stricter gun control laws and better education on the use of guns is necessary. People of the U.S. aren't as rigidly regulated by gun laws compared to our European neighbors. In the United States it takes anywhere from a few days to a couple of weeks to get a permit to carry a handgun. However, in most crimes committed with a handgun, the gun isn't even licensed. More authority is necessary to control the illegal handling of handguns. In England, guns which are permitted for hunting are required to be signed out, purpose of use stated, and the type of gun. I also feel the person requesting a permit should first be educated on the proper use, cleaning, and handling of a firearm. This would help to avoid any accidental shootings from occurring. They should be made aware of all the laws regarding the handling of firearms. To some this may seem severe. But as I stated earlier, these stricter laws do affect the difference between the U.S. and Europe in the amount of handgun related deaths. In these controversial issues about gun control, it is my opinion that the United States should have stricter gun obtaining laws. If a criminal was convicted for a gun related crime, he should be unable to purchase a gun.

The Lottery Essay -- essays research papers

When you hear the word lottery, you probably think of winning a large sum of money before being stoned to death. " The Lottery" by Shirley Jackson brings this horrible idea to life. While the overall mood of the story depicts a typical day in a small rural town, through great use of imagery and irony, one is set up for an unusual ending. Shirley Jackson uses the element of surprise. The way of the story ends is unlike anyone could predict. The main object of The Lottery is the action of the lottery itself and perhaps the slips of paper. The actions that make the story are all connected to the preparation for, drawing of, and consequences of the lottery. Mr. Summers treats the lottery with cold precision as if this duty was as normal as all the other duties he performs for the town. The Townspeople respect the lottery and actually appear to fear it ever so slightly. Mrs. Hutchinson when faced with the possibility of winning the drawing panics and tries everything she can think of to decrease her chance of winning or avoiding it altogether. Mrs. Hutchinson is the main female character of the story and is probably the strongest example of a weak, powerless, scared woman in all the stories we reviewed. She is the last to show for the drawing, she disputes the results of both drawings once completed, and she makes every attempt to lower her chance of winning by drawing her married daughters into her families drawing. Mrs. Hutchinson sho...

Mountains Beyond Mountains Essay

The title is a haitian proverb that translates â€Å"beyond the mountains, more mountains.† As it relates to the book, I believe mountains beyond mountains means the never ending struggle to control disease involving the poor. In this case, the poor are the haitian people who are in a struggle to improve their health and the institution in place allow this to perpetuate. Farmer sees health in a way that differs from most. Farmer believes improvement of health is not only the actual treatment of the disease. Instead, it is the complete assimilation of institutions where the poor are given power to succeed politically as well as the access to health care. This is evident in what resources Farmer’s clinic has available to his patients that go beyond access to equipment and medications that are not easily attainable in Haiti. In order to provide the necessary resources for a healthy community today and into the future they provide a school, housing, kitchen that feeds people daily, sanitation, as well as filtered water systems. These different resources combined make up what a community needs to have an improvement of health today and into the future. This philosophy rings true for me. How can you expect to have a healthy community when these basic needs are not available. In a country like the United States these resources are at at your disposal in the most rural locations and their benefits forg otten because of it. Farmer’s Story shows how a small group of practitioners can make a positive and lasting impact in a world with poverty and a lack of health care provisions to those without insurance. One major component to this ability is the level of sacrifice these practitioners were able to endure. For many, the dreams of being a doctor include the big bucks that come along with it. In order to provide the level of care Farmer believed was necessary he sacrificed an extraordinary amount of his personal wealth. Another major sacrifice was his time with family. He split his year in Boston and Haiti so the geographic aspect was limiting. Then, the enormous amount of work that seemed never ending (mountains beyond mountains) kept  him busy way beyond an average 9 to 5, leaving no time for vacation to visit. These sacrifices are not to be taken lightly. I don’t know if I would be willing to live for others like Farmer has. It takes a certain character that one is born with to do this. Farmer used every tool he had to help. He sweet talked workers at hospitals and walked away with tuberculosis medicine for the poor and even paid for it himself. When caught he paid back the 96 thousand dollars in medicine he had take. When he was with others he would lecture all he came into contact with on the plight of the poor. He felt as though the poor were all too often forgotten. Tuberculosis control was the perfect example of this. Pharmaceutical companies had controlled TB in wealthy countries and made no effort in poor nations like haiti because it did not make sense financially. Once Farmer came into contact with a resistant form of TB in haiti he was on a mission to make MDR available for all not just the wealthy. The biggest block was cost. His goal of MDR for all was not shared by pharmaceutical companies that wanted to keep the prices high. That didn’t sway him one bit. Ultimately, Farmer was able to acheive his goal and make MDR affordable for all. This motivation with no regard to a personal financial benefit is an attribute I have seldom seen in my lifetime. I imagine Farmer had been approached or had the opportunity to make huge profits from his position and public image. This ethical character seems mythical in today’s world of business and bottom lines. His ethical standard is something to aspire to. The most intriguing quality I see in Farmer is his ability to understand the position of the poor in all its complexity. Wether the person is from Haiti or the United States he treats the patient with a respect that puts the patient at ease. His overall goal is to help the patient in a manner where it improves their overall health. One example that stuck out was Farmer’s experience with Joe a drug addict who doesn’t take his medication or eat properly. He sits with him and asks what his needs are in order to have a successful change in health. The response was definitely unique. His needs were a warm place to stay, 6 pack of beer, person to make sure he takes his medication, and someone to make sure he eats. Instead of listening and  completely dismissing his needs as out of the question he promises to try his best. On a board he writes what Joe’s current situation and the situation he wants to place him in and begins his mission. Ultimately he finds Joe a homeless shelter but they do not allow alcohol, but that doesn’t stop Farmer from pleading Joe’s case. This unorthodox method for providing the care Farmer felt would make a real change in Joe’s health was impressive. Farmer’s story is impressive. After reading this book I understand that a medical career is more than the good life. The abilities we are about to have can help so many and we need to know that is the goal of a good practitioner.

Discuss Yeats’ changing attitude to ‘Romantic Ireland’

It is one of the dualities in Yeats' work that a poet renowned for the universal forlorn love lyric should be so inextricably bound to the particular identity, struggle and destiny of the Irish nation. However, on closer examination, Yeats' poetic style proves that seeming paradox is easily explained when the true nature of Yeats' idealism is taken into account. This essay shall argue the apparent political revolutionary commitment seen in the 1910's was something of an aberration, in a transitional period of his career. To locate this transition, it is necessary to start at the beginning and end of his life, and work inwards, tracing the changing portrayal of Ireland in his verse. The early Yeats was part of a strong Romantic tradition. Its liking for the emotional authenticity of folk-lore found a ready place in Yeats' work, as he exploited the rich Irish mythological tradition: his long narrative works all date from this first stage. The first collection uses the ballad form frequently, and the simplicity of poems like ‘To An Isle in the Water' – â€Å"shy one, shy one/ shy one of my heart / she moves in the firelight† – recalls traditional Irish poetry. Perhaps archetypal of Yeats' early romantic pieces is ‘To The Rose Upon The Rood Of Time'. His treatment of Ireland and formal technique come together under the auspices of traditional Romanticism: he is unapologetic about drawing from â€Å"Old Eire and the ancient ways.† The poem is populated by mythic and shadowy figures from Ireland's Gaelic past: the warrior-king Cuchulain, a druid, and Fergus, sometime King of Ulster. Despite coming from an Irish Protestant family, Yeats still paints Ireland as a Celtic idyll, and evokes it using traditional Romantic imagery – stars, the sea, woodlands, flowers. The use of the rose as a motif throughout his early work is indebted not only to the Order of the Golden Dawn, but to Blake in particular. Both shared a mystical tendency beyond Christianity echoed by Yeats' own wish to be a seer-poet in the Irish tradition: the keeper of the narrative of identity. Formally and technically, it shows the clear legacy of Romanticism too. The opening line, in solid iambic pentameter, runs as a stylized invocation – a common technique of traditional lyrical verse. The repetitions echo prayer, further intensifying the spiritual dimension of the piece. The vocabulary, whilst not necessarily archaic, is certainly that of traditional poetic diction: â€Å"thine†, â€Å"whereof†, â€Å"boughs.† There is a similar stylization in the syntax – â€Å"I would, before my time to go† – and personification of â€Å"eternal beauty wandering on her way.† This phase of his poetry, known as the ‘Celtic twilight' period, is rich in similar poems; their keynote being Irish themes and myth married to Romantic style and concerns such as unrequited love, heroism and mystical union with nature. Other pieces which use Irish mythology are â€Å"The Hosting of the Sidhe', ‘The Song of Wandering Aengus', but the idea of a Celtic idyll (derived from the Romantic's radical reshaping of pastoral idealism) runs throughout. This early work is a strong contrast to his final collections, some three or four decades later. It is impossible to characterise such an extensive body of poetry with few examples, but the progression is distinctive. His cultural frame of reference seems far wider, drawing on such diverse sources as: â€Å"a Quattrocento painter's throng / A thoughtless image of Mantegna's thought†[1] to the famous symbolism of Byzantium, representing imaginative unity and the highest form of culture. Formally, the uniform elegiac tone of the early verse (broken only by simple ballads and refrains) is replaced by much greater variety. Yeats' background in theatre comes through in many pieces relying on the dialogue form. There are also the unique and iconoclastic ‘Crazy Jane' poems, as well as series of lyrics and fragments of a few lines. The tone is far less stylised and less self-consciously Romantic: ‘Crazy Jane' represent the apex of a far more open and natural diction. The portrayal of Ireland in these poems mirrors the new progression in style. ‘Under Ben Bulben' sees Yeats' rather desperately asking young writers to â€Å"learn your trade† and â€Å"cast your mind on other days.† This strikes a more resigned tone than the early ‘To Ireland In The Coming Times' where Yeats affirmed: â€Å"I cast my heart into my rhymes† and evoked â€Å"faeries, dancing under the moon / A druid land, a druid tune!† ‘Parnell's Funeral' is not so much resigned, as starkly cynical, with Yeats stating: â€Å"all that was sung / all that was said in Ireland is a lie / bred out of the contagion of the throng.† It is an attitude shared in the acerbic ‘The Great Day' and also ‘Nineteen Hundred And Nineteen' which describes the â€Å"traffic in mockery†: â€Å"We, who seven years ago Talked of honour and truth, Shriek with pleasure if we show The weasel's twist, the weasel's tooth† The poems in The Tower and The Winding Stair, particularly, portray melancholy despair which sees Yeats retreating, whether it be to the symbolic Byzantium, or his own watchtower at Coole Park. The everyday chaos of Ireland is left behind as Yeats surrenders to reflection. Yet this also marks a continuation between the two periods; in the figure of a solitary, reflective artist: â€Å"a man in his own secret meditation / is lost amid the labyrinth that he has made† (‘Nineteen Hundred and Nineteen.') We see, too, that Yeats had lost none of his gift for the lyric.Note the solemn mysticism of â€Å"wine-dark midnight in the sacred wood† (‘Her Vision In The Wood') or the powerful spiritual aphorism in ‘Under Ben Bulben': â€Å"Many times man lives and dies / Between his two eternities.† This continuity, although at odds with the progressions already noted, helps to explain them. It is the vital thread running through his transitional phase, unifying both early and late Yeats, and provokes fresh inquiry into the so-called ‘political' poems. Yeats was always a Romantic in the Keatsian or Tennysonian reflective strain, rather than the radical political side. Hid poetry nearly always came imbued with myth, ‘otherness': he proceeded from the Late Romantic period to form a kind of Romantic Modernism more characteristic of American poets such as Hart Crane. His interest in dream symbolism and automatic writing also placed him with the impressionistic side of Modernism (eg.Surrealism) rather than the harsher or more violent wings (imagism, futurism etc.) Yeats' myth-making and political romanticism is lucidly apparent if the use of legend in the ‘Celtic twilight' phase is put under closer scrutiny. Without placing too much store on biographical details, Celticism (in the hands of Yeats and others) was double-edged. Although it did support national identity and culture, it was also reinforcing imperial stereotyping of the Celts as irrational, feminine and emotional. By using the ancient myth of Ireland, Yeats was implicitly denying that Ireland had a present; by glorifying the peasantry and the oppressed, he was implicitly affirming that Ireland's place was as a subjugated nation. This paradox has been noted in a general sense by Edward Said: â€Å"to accept nativism is to accept the consequences of imperialism too willingly, to accept the very radical, religious and political divisions imposed on places like Ireland.†[2] Yeats' is not a radical revolutionary idealism, but an imaginative idealism: running along metaphysical and mythopoetic lines; not historical or political ones. If this tendency – the tendency to escape into myth – is noted, the later pieces seem less removed from his early career. Yeats peppers his verse with references to former poets, and explicitly assumes the Romantic mantle for himself: â€Å"Some moralist or mythological poet Compares the solitary soul to a swan; I am satisfied with that, Satisfied if a troubled mirror show it, Before that brief gleam of its life be gone.† (‘Nineteen Hundred and Nineteen') He revels in the symbol of the winding stair to mythologise the poet's ascent to meditate on the turbulence of the world below. Whereas before Ireland's enchanted past was the myth, now Ireland is yoked to greater schemes. The civil war representing the violence and disillusion of existence to be set against the spiritual purity of the poet in his tower. The events in Ireland are chained to Yeats' elaborate visions of cyclical history set out in ‘The Second Coming' and ‘The Gyres.' The â€Å"violence upon the roads† (Nineteen Hundred and Nineteen† and the â€Å"rage-driven, rage-tormented, and rage-hungry troop† (‘Meditations in Time of Civil War') are local analogues for the universal â€Å"blood-dimmed tide† of ‘The Second Coming'. Yeats still does celebrate Ireland – it would be fallacy to suggest that the violence of the Civil War sickened his idealism so much he could never face Ireland again with anything but cynicism. However, his engagement was often wary, sometimes ironical – the drinking song of ‘ Come Gather Round Me, Parnellites.' Neither can it be ignored that he occasionally refashioned his old Celtic schemes, most famously in ‘Under Ben Bulben' although even here it becomes a segment of a wider schema: â€Å"gyres run on / when that greater dream had gone.† It is particularly interesting, although perhaps not surprising, that Yeats took the events of the civil war and immediately mythologised them. As mentioned above, the black-and-tan conflict becomes an antithetical tension in his meditative poems, or is encompassed into some larger historical cycle. In various pieces, the heroes of Irish independence take their historical place neatly alongside Wolfe Tone and the Celtic warriors. Even before the fate of the Irish Free State had been decided, Yeats had abstracted the civil war and the contemporary crisis into history and myth. It seems that in his poetry, Ireland had to be romantic. Which helps to explain exactly why Yeats had a seemingly ‘political' phase. Essentially, for a brief period, the reality of Ireland suddenly became equal to the romantic ideal – a struggle for an ideal and a dream, a forging of identity, a moment of historical crisis, death and beauty side by side. Yeats suddenly found that, for a moment, romantic Ireland seemed to be tentatively existent. It must be noted that the ‘political' phase coincided beautifully with the technical and stylistic transition. It would be mere speculation to try to delineate some kind of causal relationship, but it is clear that by 1914 Yeats was searching for some kind of new poetic idiom. His patchy excursions into Imagist style verse in The Green Helmet show he was dissatisfied with simply creating carbon-copy Keatsian Celtic lyrics. It was also about this time that the first dialogue poems began to appear. Emotionally, the tone of the poetry is dejected too. Yeats â€Å"grew weary of the sun† and suggests he might have â€Å"been content to live† in ‘Words'. ‘No Second Troy'rebukes Gonne: â€Å"she filled my days / with misery†, whilst the downbeat ‘Lines written in Dejection' sees him with â€Å"nothing but the embittered sun.† It is seemingly with the Civil War that Yeats found a way to harness his Romanticism to both modern Ireland and to Modernism itself. The period was one of great variety in style and theme. Culminations of his wistful melancholia appear as late as The Wild Swans of Coole (notably the title poem.) Yet they lie side by side with dubious Modernist outings like ‘The Balloon of the Mind' and more successful sparse and clean verse like (perhaps supremely) ‘Easter 1916.' Poems like ‘The Phases of the Moon' and ‘Ego Dominus Tuus' anticipate Yeats' later metaphysical and philosophical bent. And he was still glorifying the Irish peasantry in pieces like ‘The Fisherman.' As Bloom points out â€Å"the two years from late 1915 to late 1917 were the most important of Yeats' imaginative life.†[3] Surely no accident then, that such a time frame was identical to the opening of the Irish hostilities. A longer transitional period (Responsibilities to Michael Robartes) interlocks uncannily with the end of the Home Rule, the Easter Rising and the course of the Irish Civil War. Thus it appears the Ireland's revolution either spurred Yeats' poetic career on to new ground, or he exploited it to facilitate the transition. In ‘September 1913†², disillusioned by the philistine and listless middle classes (symbolised by the â€Å"greasy till†), is among the strongest glorification of the Irish revolutionary tradition: â€Å"they were of a different kind, The names that stilled your childish play, They have gone about the world like wind, But little time had they to pray For whom the hangman's rope was spun, And what, God help us, could they save?† The second in the triptych of Yeats' war poems (the other was Nineteen Hundred and Nineteen), was ‘Easter 1916', where Yeats even questions the viability of art to encapsulate the glory of the revolutionaries: â€Å"no, no, not night but death.† This is quite a reversal for an artist who is fiercely aware of the myth-making possibility of poetry, and the importance of the narrative bardic tradition to Irish identity. Yeats is quick to contrast the everyday â€Å"polite meaningless words† and the bourgeois world of â€Å"eighteenth century houses† with the sacrifice and honour of the 1916 rebels: â€Å"We know their dreams, enough To know they dreamed and are dead; And what if excess of love Bewildered them till they died? I write it out in a verse – MacDonaugh and MacBride And Connolly and Pearse.† Yet even here, perhaps at the very apex of his political phase, there is doubt – â€Å"too long a sacrifice / Can make a stone of the heart† and foreboding of an destructive, irreversible change: â€Å"changed, changed utterly: / A terrible beauty is born.† These two separate images remind us that Yeats was an imaginative (and not political) idealist, and evoke two of his emblematic concerns: stasis, and the dying moment. Both his traditional and Modernist Romanticism are rooted in an intense awareness of time and history. The ‘Celtic twilight' poems, with their exploration of myth, unrequited love, and sorrow, sensualise and unify the tension between the Romantic polarity of eternity and transience; compare with Blake's ‘Auguries of Innocence' or Shelley's ‘To A Skylark.' Whilst never fully leaving the shadow of the Romantics – consider â€Å"I meditate upon a swallow's flight† from ‘Coole Park, 1929' – he also engaged with the Modernist crisis of temporality. The Modernist project to obliterate time has an ally of sorts in Yeats. One might consider the ‘out of time' reflections of the tower poems, the instant of rape enlarged into ‘Leda and the Swan', the a-temporal juxtaposition of historical figures in ‘The Statues', and of course the apocalyptic visions of ‘The Second Coming' and ‘The Gyres.' Note, too, the vast amount of material Yeats wrote on the experiences of aging and death. It is this obsession with time that reveals Yeats' true image of Ireland. Ireland, for him at least, had to be romantic Ireland, otherwise it something to be rejected as inferior – philistine, crude, brutal – and inimical to the soul of an imaginative artist. The Ireland of Yeats' verse was always an Ireland of the past, an Ireland passing away, with one eye on the eternities of legend and history. The images of Ireland changed repeatedly yet the undertow of myth remained the same. For a brief period around ‘Easter 1916†² – a time that fortuitously coincided with and perhaps enabled Yeats' technical transition – the reality of present Ireland was seemingly equal to its mythic past. It is ironic that Yeats' most relevant and political poem was also his greatest act of myth-making. What was really â€Å"changed, changed utterly† was not the history of Ireland, but Yeats' imaginative landscape. Ireland, once again, faded to romantic legend, and was dead and gone. Yeats slotted Pearse as heir to Cuchulain in his mythic schema, and continued his intrinsically timeless and subjective quest, fusing Modernism, Romanticism – and Ireland – into his own poetic idiom.